In previous articles about the scales of Iranian music, the subject of the mode of Aavaaz-e Esfahaan (one of the modal systems of traditional Iranian music) was briefly discussed. As a followup to that thread, I decided to post an article about this modal system. Then I thought I should also write a few lines by way of introduction to Iranian music. With this thought I started, and before I knew it, I had a 500 line article.

So I am going to split this article into several posts as a general introduction to Iranian music, followed by an article specifically about Aavaaz-e Esfahaan. Hopefully, if this proves interesting or useful, others who are knowledgeable can write about other modal systems, or we might do it as a collaborative effort, and put the whole thing on an archive site.

The original thread was confined to soc.culture.iranian, but I am guessing that a few other people may also be interested in this discussion, so I am cross-posting this to rec.music.early and rec.music.classical. Because of this wider posting, I have tried to take a little wider approach, by giving translations and some analogies, and in general I have explained some things that are obvious to Iranian readers. I hope people on s.c.i. can tolerate this, and that people on other newsgroups find the explanations useful.

I welcome any comments, questions, corrections and suggestions for improvement, and if you are interested in this subject, please get in touch and let me know what you think. As I said above, perhaps we can continue this work together.

In the following, Persian words are enclosed in underscores when they appear as part of an english sentence. Also, to avoid confusion, the plurals of persian words are constructed by using the Persian plural suffix -haa, instead of the english -s. (_aa_ sounds like the "a" in "star", as opposed to _a_, which sounds like the "a" in "man". _u_ is always pronounced "oo", and _i_ is always pronounced "ee", never "eye".)

(Note that the transcription described above is intended to facilitate correct pronounciation of Persian words on USENET, since we are limited to ASCII characters. If you pick up a book on Iranian music, you will not see the words _taar_ or _aavaaz_, etc... Instead, you will see _tar_ or _avaz_ with some kind of diacritical mark on the _a_ to indicate the open "a" sound. This luxury is not available here.)

Also, I have drawn on the writings of several Iranian and non-Iranian authors. I have not given references in the text, but include a short bibliography at the end of the last article. I will post a more complete bibliography for Iranian classical music in the future, if needed.

1.0 Introduction to Classical Iranian Music

Iranian traditional music has been transmitted to us in the form of the _radif_ (series, row), which is an orderly progression of melodies, melodic models, and musical forms for composition and improvisation. In the view accepted by the majority of today's musical authorities, the complete _radif_ consists of seven (primary) _dastgaah_, and five (secondary) _aavaaz_.

A _dastgaah_ (system, or apparatus) is a large collection of melodic models which share some common features, most notably a common expressive character. Each individual melodic fragment or model is called a _gusheh_ (corner, or "aspect") of the _dastgaah_. Each _gusheh_ has its own name, except the initial, or introductory, _gusheh_ of each _dastgaah_, which is called the _daraamad_ (point of entry) in all cases.

1.1 Modes of Classical Iranian Music

One can talk about the modes or scales of Iranian music, but in doing so, care must be taken not to project ideas associated with western modes and scales into Iranian music, since this will only confuse the issue. Concepts such as the tonic, sensible, dominant, ascending vs. descending scales etc... are only partially (or not at all) applicable to Iranian music.

A convenient starting point is to analyze the _daraamad_ section of each _dastgaah_ and extract the relevant scale. In this way, the modern practice of the radif tradition recognizes five basic modes, namely _shur_, _homaayun_, _segaah_, _chahaargaah_ and _maahur_. However, identifying a mode is not enough for specifying a _dastgaah_, for two main reasons:

      1. Some _dastgaah-haa_ share the same scale, but use it differently, stressing different notes of the scale, and progressing up and down the scale according to different melodic patterns.

      2. An entire _dastgaah_ is never played in the same scale. Sometimes, the same scale is used but with stress on different notes; at other times a transposition of the scale occurs (i.e. the "key" is changed), and at yet other times, a modulation to a different scale altogether takes place.

For these reasons, a _dastgaah_ is more than a mode, it is truly a "system", which includes several modes, together with cadential formulae, specification of notes of importance and their progression up and down the scale in each _gusheh_.

There are several notes of importance which characterize a _dastgaah_ and help distinguish it from others. These are:

    1. The _shaahed_ (witness note). This is the most important degree of the scale. It is the note around which the melody revolves. Each _dastgaah_ is characterized by the location of the _shaahed_ in the initial section, the _daraamad_. As the music progresses to other _gusheh-haa_, the _shaahed_ can move to other degrees of the scale (or there can be a modulation to another mode). Typically the Shaahed moves up the scale, but does not have to (in fact never does) rest on all degrees of the scale.

    2. The _forud-e kaamel_ (Finalis, note of conclusion). This is the closest thing to the notion of tonic in Iranian music. The final cadence (_forud_) ends in this note. This is sometimes confused with another important note of the scale, the _ist_ (see below). The finalis is a characteristic of the _dastgaah_ as a whole, and does not change with each _gusheh_, unless the latter represents a modulation to another mode.

    3. The _ist_ (note of repose). This is the note on which phrases and intermediate cadences rest. It can be the same as the finalis, or it can differ and move around with each _gusheh_. Other significant notes include the _aaqaaz_ (starting note), and the _moteqayyer_ (variable note). Needless to say, some of these important notes can be on the same degree of the scale, for instance, in _dastgaah-e shur_, the _shaahed_ and finalis are on the same note (the first degree of the scale).

1.2 Intervals Used in Iranian Music

A thorough review of the question of the intervals used in Iranian music is beyond the scope of this short essay. It is enough to mention that Iranian music uses non-tempered, microtonal intervals, and to denote its modes, we can safely use the following symbols (after Dr. Hormoz Farhat):

When we deal with microtonal intervals, we will end up with notes other than those in the chromatic scale. We need two more accidentals to denote microtonal flattening (p, pronounced _koron_) and sharpening (>, pronounced _sori_). These symbols (p and >) are the closest ones one can find on an ASCII keyboard to represent the actual symbols. The terms _koron_ and _sori_ and their symbols were coined by the late Colonel Alinaqi Vaziri, the first person to apply western methodology to the systematic study of Iranian musical scales and intervals in the 20th century.

1.3 List of _Dastgaah-haa_ and _Aavaaz-haa_

The _dastgaah-haa_ of Iranian music are the following (a rough translation of the meaning of the name of each _dastgaah_ is given in brackets):

The _daraamad_ of each _dastgaah_ is in the scale having the same name as the _dastgaah_ itself, except for _raast panjgaah_ and _navaa_, whose _daraamads_ are in the modes of _maahur_ and _shur_ respectively.

Of the five _aavaaz-haa_, four of them are related to (derived from) _dastgaah-e shur_, which is the most extensive _dastgaah_, with the greatest number of _gusheh-haa_. These are:

These are all related to some ethnic group or region within Iran. _Abu-ataa_ is also known as the Music of the Arabs (_Dastaan-e Arab_), _Dashti_ belongs to the southern regions of Iran (although it is highly popular in the north as well), _Afshaari_ is attributed to a large turkish tribe of the same name, and _Bayaat-e Tork_, also known as _Bayaat-e Zand_, refers to the turkish _Zand_ tribe of southern Iran. Yet another major part of _dastgaah-e Shur_, which some musicians consider to be yet another independent _aavaaz_, is named _Bayaat-e Kord_ (Chant of the Kurds).

The last (but not least) _aavaaz_ is called _Aavaaz-e Esfahaan_, or _Bayaat-e Esfahaan_, and is related to (derived from) _dastgaah-e homaayun_. It too refers to a region, namely that of Esfahaan, a city of great historic historic significance, and one of the largest cities in Iran.

1.4 Instruments

In this section, for the sake of completeness, a brief description of the main instruments used in performances of classical Iranian music is given. For description of other instruments, the reader should consult a book on Iranian music.

Santur:

This instrument is in the class of dulcimers. Most commonly, it has 18 moveable bridges which support 72 metal strings arranged and tuned in quadruplets. The bridges are mounted on a trapeze-shaped wooden box. The sound is produced by striking the strings with a pair of plectra (_mezraab-haa_). The genealogy of the _santur_ may go as far back as the sixth century B.C. or earlier, and is considered the "father" of the piano. The range of the _santur_ extends over three octaves and one note.

Setaar:

This is a small fretted string instrument, with a pear-shaped box, and a thin neck which supports four metal strings. The sound is produced by plucking the strings with the index finger, whose nail must have grown to 5mm or more. The _setaar_ is a descendant of the older _tanbur_, which goes back at least to the pre-islamic Sassanid Period (under the name _barbat_). _Setaar_ literally means "three strings", and the fourth string is a relatively recent addition. Its Range extends over two octaves and a fifth.

Taar:

This is a large, double-bellied fretted string instrument, of much heavier construction than the _setaar_. Its body is covered by a sheepskin membrane. It has six metal strings arranged and tuned in pairs (except that the two top strings are tuned an octave apart.) The sound of the _taar_ is produced by plucking the strings with a metallic plectrum. The origin of the _taar_ and its relationship to the very similar instrument played in the transcaucasus is not clear, but in any event, it is thought to be of more recent origin than the _setaar_. Its range is similar to the _setaar_.

Kamaancheh:

This is a bowed string instrument with many particularities. It has four metallic strings, and its quasi-spherical body is covered by a membrane. The _kamaancheh_ is held in an upright position when played. Instead of moving the bow on the strings, it is the instrument which is rotated on a pointed base connected to the bottom of its body. The _kamaancheh_ faced the threat of extinction for a while, when it was supplanted by the ever growing popularity of the violin, but it has made a remarkable comeback, and it is used in the great majority of performances of Iranian classical music today. The range of the kamancheh can extend over three octaves and a fourth.

Ney:

This is the principal woodwind instrument of Iranian music. Literally, _ney_ means straw, or cane (as in sugar cane). The construction of the _ney_ is somewhat variable. The largest _ney_ is called _ney-e haft band_ (seven knots), with a three octave range, but smaller _ney-haa_ are also made and used. A typical _ney_ has five holes on the top side and one on the bottom, and is played by holding the opening between the teeth, while the body is held at a slight angle. The individual notes are produced by the manner of blowing. The _ney_ is a very old instrument, going back to the Sassanid period, but the current style of playing is a 19th century innovation.

Tombak:

The _tombak_ is the primary percussion instrument in Iranian music. It consists of a wooden cylinder, narrowed at one end, which is open, and covered at the other end by a membrane. The diameter of the cylinder is variable, but is typically around 30cm. The cylinder is positioned horizontally on the thigh of the performer, and the membrane is struck at different locations by the palm or fingers of both hands. The _tombak_ is also a very old instrument which goes back all the way to the Sassanid period, although its origin is not clear.

Other instruments of Iranian music include the _tanbur_, the _dotaar_, the _rebaab_, the _qeychak_, the _'ud_, the _qaanun_, the _sornaa_, and the _daf_, each with its own variations.

1.4 Musical Forms

The musical forms in use within _radif_ music are the following:

1.4.1 Unmeasured improvisation

"Unmeasured" is this context means non-rhythmic. This is the principal form, (if it can be called a form, since in reality, it consists of a lack of form). This may be purely instrumental or with improvised vocals.

1.4.2 Chahaar Mezraab

Literally, this means "four plectra", and can also be taken as "four measures". The origin of this name is not clear, since it refers to an improvised or composed piece which is almost always in triple meter (e.g. 6/8, or 6/16). A _chahaar mezraab_ is usually performed by a single instrument, although it does not have to be. It is a musical form well suited to demonstration of virtuosity.

1.4.3 Reng

This is the principal dance form in _radif_ music. It can be improvised or composed, performed by one or more instruments and written in a variety of time signatures. A reng usually occurs towards the end of a _radif_ performance. Some famous rengs are included in the _radif_ repertoire, while others are short compositions.

1.4.4 Tasnif

This means "song". It is a composed piece with a one or several instruments and vocals, which can be placed anywhere in a performance.

1.4.5 Pish-Daraamad

This means "before the _daraamad_". It is a 20th century invention, which consists of a measured piece written for group performance, to be played at beginning of a concert. The melody of a _pish daraammad_ usually contains hints or references to the upcoming _gusheh-haa_ in the performance. The _pish daraamad_ was invented by the great turn-of-the-century musician Darvish Khan, who wrote the first such piece for a public concert in the early 1920's.

Until relatively recently, a performance of Iranian traditional music consisted of more or less pure improvisation in a given _dastgaah_, by one instrument, accompanied (perhaps) by a percussion instrument and a vocalist. The performance was very much a function of the interaction between the performer(s) and their audience. Such details as which _gusheh_ should be played next, which poem should be sung, how long the performance should be, were determined in the course of action, not a priori. Even if several instruments were played, they took turns in demonstrating their virtuosity and playing according to their own and their audiences' _haal_ (mood, state of mind, emotional state).

Composition is a relatively recent phenomenon. Of course, people have composed tunes or melodies for ages in Iran, but in the domain of the _radif_, there is no room for individual melodies. From time to time, if a novel and particularly attractive melody was invented which did not fit into the existing repertoire of _gusheh-haa_, it was added to the _radif_ as a _gusheh_, or a _tekke_ (literally, piece). Other melodies survived through the rich folkloric music of Iran (which can be the subject of another, or many other, articles).

Ever since the late 19th century, when recording of music became possible, melodies started to survive their composers. This is because, with the lack of a system of notation for music in Iran, and with the tradition of the _radif_, which is an oral tradition, nothing was ever committed to paper until that time. (Systems of musical notation had been invented long ago, but they had not found much use among musicians, and faded away.)